A recent study in Case Studies in Construction Materials, titled “Experimental and numerical investigations on the overturning resistance of curved walls constructed using 3D concrete printing” examines how 3D printed elements behave under horizontal loads
The construction industry is undergoing a profound transformation, propelled by automation, robotics, and digital fabrication technologies. Among these, 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) stands at the forefront, promising enhanced efficiency, reduced waste, and architectural freedom.
An increasing number of studies are exploring how this technology performs under real-world structural demands, particularly when applied to non-conventional forms like curved walls.
The findings in a new study in the Journal of Building Engineering also highlight crucial implications for construction safety, design optimisation, and the integration of 3D printing into mainstream architecture.
Why curved walls matter in 3D concrete printing
Curved walls are not merely aesthetic flourishes; they serve functional roles, from improving wind resistance to optimising spatial flow and material efficiency. In digitally fabricated environments, they also represent one of the purest expressions of design freedom.
Yet, one structural concern persists: How do these curves perform under lateral loads that could cause overturning?
The new study from Casanova, E., Hidalgo, N., Valdebenito, M., Forcael, E., García-Alvarado, R., & Graciano, C. (2025) aims to answer this question by bridging experimental testing and finite element simulations to evaluate overturning resistance, a key safety criterion for non-load-bearing and façade structures.
Experimental setup: A focused look
The researchers printed full-scale, arc-shaped concrete wall segments using a customised gantry-based 3D concrete printing (3DCP) system. These walls had:
- No steel reinforcement or external supports.
- Fixed base conditions simulating ground anchorage.
- Variable heights and radii to test different curvature profiles.
Horizontal loads were gradually applied at the top of each wall until the structure exhibited a state of overturning failure. Load-displacement curves, deformation patterns, and crack propagation were meticulously recorded.
Key observations include a nonlinear response with walls exhibiting elastic behaviour, followed by a sudden loss of stability. The failure mode involves overturning that occurs predominantly through rotation at the base, accompanied by progressive cracking along the wall body. Crack patterns indicate stress concentration zones around the middle height and the corners of the arc.
Finite element analysis: Validating the physics
The team developed a 3D finite element model using the Concrete Damage Plasticity (CDP) model in Abaqus, simulating:
- Material nonlinearity
- Interface behaviour between printed layers
- Boundary conditions
The simulations demonstrated excellent agreement with experimental results, thereby reinforcing confidence in numerical methods for predicting failure modes in 3D-printed structures.
Key findings and industry implications
1. Curvature enhances overturning resistance
Greater curvature (smaller radius) contributed to higher overturning resistance, confirming that arc geometry plays a stabilising role.
2. Wall height is a critical variable
Taller walls showed exponentially greater susceptibility to overturning, emphasising the importance of the height-to-radius ratio in design.
3. Layer interface integrity is crucial
Crack propagation is often aligned with layer interfaces, making interlayer bonding strength a significant factor in structural reliability.
4. Design optimisation is possible through simulation
The study demonstrates how finite element analysis can be used proactively to optimize wall design before construction.
How this research advances 3DCP adoption
This study addresses a key gap in current 3DCP research — structural safety of curved, unreinforced elements under lateral loads.
Through combining empirical data with simulation, providing a clear methodology for assessing overturning resistance, and offering design recommendations for curvature and height, it offers a pathway for incorporating curved printed walls into real-world applications, from commercial buildings to public infrastructure.
What other studies say
The insights from Casanova et al are echoed and complemented by some other publications:
1. Layer bonding and structural cohesion
Zhang, Y., Tao, Y., Godinho, J. R., Ren, Q., Jiang, Z., Van Tittelboom, K., & De Schutter, G. (2025) explored how different extrusion speeds and mix compositions affect interlayer adhesion, a key concern raised in the Casanova et al study. Their recommendation: slower extrusion improves cohesion, enhancing overturning resistance. (Zhang, Y., Tao, Y., Godinho, J. R., Ren, Q., Jiang, Z., Van Tittelboom, K., & De Schutter, G. (2025) Layer adhesion mechanics in 3D concrete printing. Materials and Structures, 58(4).)
2. Hybrid reinforcement in 3DCP
Fong, A., Wong, D. H., Lau, S., Debnath, S., Anwar, M., Davies, I. J., & Johar, M. B. (2024) introduced discrete fibre-reinforcement strategies that can be embedded mid-print, showing a 40% improvement in lateral load-bearing capacity without traditional rebar — a future avenue for improving curved wall resilience. (Fong, A., Wong, D. H., Lau, S., Debnath, S., Anwar, M., Davies, I. J., & Johar, M. B. (2024). Hybrid fiber-based reinforcement strategies for curved 3D printed walls. Automation in Construction, 172.)
3. Use of Recycled Rubber and Interlayer Testing
Liu et al. (2025) explored rubberized 3D printed concrete and its mechanical performance, including interlayer durability. Their findings reinforce that even innovative materials still hinge on interface integrity for structural resilience. (Liu, C., Zou, M., Chen, X., Deng, Y., Zhang, L., Luo, X., & Liu, L. (2025). Feasibility study of 3D-printed rubberized concrete as a permanent formwork: Mechanical properties, interlayer interface and durability. Journal of Building Engineering, 106, 112544.)
4. Hybrid Reinforcement Techniques for 3DCP
Fong et al. (2025) reviewed hybrid fiber-reinforced polymer composites for use in curved wall applications. These materials have shown marked improvements in peak load resistance and crack suppression when applied within 3D printed formworks. (Fong, A., Wong, D. H., Lau, S., Debnath, S., Anwar, M., Davies, I. J., & Johar, M. B. (2024). A review on the hybrid polymer composites comprising natural fibre and nanomaterial reinforcement. Journal of Composite Materials.)
5. Increasing the Reinforcement Rate can ‘Significantly Enhance’ the Ductility of the Concrete
Wang, J., Zhang, P., Feng, J., & Cai, J. (2024) inestigated the compression performance and failure mode of walls with various material grades, section forms, and reinforcement forms through axial and eccentric axial compression tests, finding that whilst an increased reinforcement rate had a minor impact on the bearing capacity of the wall, it could still ‘substantially enhance the ductility of the specimen’. The study also concluded that the cement strength grade within the wall significantly influences its performance. (Wang, J., Zhang, P., Feng, J., & Cai, J. (2024). Experimental study and design approach on 3D printed concrete walls under eccentric axial compression. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 20, e02892.)
What this means for UK construction
In the context of net zero goals and MMC (Modern Methods of Construction) policy promotion in the UK, the relevance of this research is clear:
- Curved 3DCP walls reduce material usage, align with sustainability targets.
- On-site automated construction saves time and reduces labour dependency.
- Validated overturning resistance opens the door for wider regulatory approval.
Challenges and future research
Despite the promising results, several challenges remain:
- Real-world environmental variables like wind load, soil anchorage, and seismic activity need further exploration.
- Scaling up while maintaining print precision and interlayer bonding is still technically complex.
- Standardised codes and testing protocols for 3D printed structures are still in their infancy.
The authors of the paper call for further interdisciplinary research that combines materials science, computational mechanics, and robotics engineering.
Conclusion
This 2025 study on overturning resistance of curved walls constructed via 3D concrete printing significantly advances our understanding of structural performance in digital fabrication. It not only provides a validated experimental and numerical framework for safety assessment but also lays the groundwork for intelligent, performance-based design of 3D printed architecture.
As more real-world projects take shape in Europe and the UK, these findings will be indispensable in guiding policy, informing design, and ensuring that innovation in form does not compromise function or safety.
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